Religion and Terrorism

Terrorism has long plagued the existence of peace and security in society, where secular groups have resorted to violence against non-combatant targets in order to influence the policies of a governmental or nongovernmental organisation. The concept of terrorism, whilst elusive and vague in definition has been categorised into various forms of terrorism, these being dissident, state-sponsored, and religious terrorism to name a few.This paper will argue that the most dangerous form of terrorism is religious terrorism. To deliver an effective argument this paper has been divided into three sections; the first will argue that the most dangerous form of terrorism is religious terrorism by examining what it is, how it is dangerous, and why it is more dangerous than other forms of terrorism.Secondly, this paper will argue that the most dangerous proponent of religious terrorism is the organisation of the Taliban, to support this claim; an analysis of the group will be given, including back ground information, information on the Taliban’s policies and recent activities, and the threat this groups poses on the international community. Lastly, this paper will analyse and critique the current governmental policies combating terrorism, and will then provide policy recommendations which could be implemented by governments, militaries or NGO’s.The justification for this paper is simply that the validation of religious terrorism as the most dangerous form of terrorism will allow for effective international coordination towards combating terrorism. Various parameters of study were encountered in the process of this paper as there is much contention on which is the most dangerous form of terrorism, which gave way to biased opinions and misleading quotations regarding factual information on various organisations implementing terrorist tactics, namely the Taliban.Although the concept of terrorism has no definition which is universally agreed upon, the notion of reli gious terrorism has been defined by Bruce Hoffman (1999), where religious terrorism must have three factors; â€Å"the perpetrators must use religious scripture to justify their violent acts or gains recruits; clerical figures must be involved in leadership roles; and apocalyptic images of destruction are seen by the perpetrators as necessary†.Religious terrorism has arguably been an ongoing occurrence in contentious religious areas for centuries, where religious groups have resorted to violence against non-combatants in order to combat real or perceived threats to their own ideology (Alexander, 1994). Debate on the original terrorist aside, terrorism is quite a modern concept stemming from the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror prompted by Maxmilien Robespierre who targeted the â€Å"enemies of liberty† indiscriminately in the ideology of the â€Å"greater good† (Cooper, 2004).Religious terrorism is thought to be caused by the misinterpretation (or funda mentalist belief) of religious scripture, however the belief in religious scripture is not the problem; it is only when these fundamentalist individuals act on their beliefs through violent means and justify their actions using religious scripture that we encounter the potential threat of terrorist tactics (Mendelsohn, 2009). Furthermore, this fundamentalist behaviour is only worsened when a threat to the religious ideology is perceived (Mendelsohn, 2009).Religious terrorism is reasonably widespread throughout the Middle East, and Southeast Asia, predictably this may be due to the religious zeal in these regions (Alexander, 1994). A United Nations report (August, 2010) showed that 76% of all casualties (in the first six months) in Afghanistan and Pakistan were attributed to the actions of the Taliban and their associate organisations, showing the danger associated with religious terrorism.Although religious terrorism has â€Å"become the predominant model for political violence in the modern world† (Martin, p 171, 2010) it is still not the only medium for extremist violence, as nationalism and ideology still remain strong motivators for radical violence (Martin, 2010). However, religious terrorism still remains a more dangerous form of terrorism when compared to other forms, such as state-sponsored or dissident terrorism. The factors which make this form of terrorism dangerous is the potentially apocalyptic ideology of religion, and furthermore the promise of an ethereal paradise awaiting those who follow this faith completely.This factor seems to provide a motivation arguably more influential towards violent behaviour then other forms of terrorism. Bruce Hoffman (p 92, 1998) stated that â€Å"it is perhaps not surprising that religion should become a far more popular motivation for terrorism in the post-Cold War era as old ideologies lie discredited by the collapse of the Soviet Union and communist ideology, while the promise of munificent benefits fr om the liberal-democratic, capitalist state†¦ fails to materialise in many countries throughout the world†. A stronger motivation for terrorism signifies that more violent activity, and at a higher requency, is to be expected from religious terrorism than state-sponsored or dissident terrorism. In recent times, the frequency, scale of violence, and global reach of religious terrorism has been increasing, while at the same time a decrease in secular, non-religious terrorism has been occurring (Martin, 2010). The fact that religious terrorism provides a stronger motivation is more widespread, causes more casualties than any other form of terrorism, and is increasing in frequency, scale of violence, and global reach, is reason enough to argue that religious terrorism is the most dangerous form of terrorism.Evidence of religious terrorism may be seen in the various attacks conducted on non-combatants throughout 2011. For example, on the 13th of May 2011, two suicide bombers w ere responsible for 80 deaths in Shabqadar, Pakistan, the attacks were claimed by the Taliban and were labelled a response to the death of Osama bin Laden on the 3rd of May 2011 (The Guardian, 13/5/11). Another example may be seen in the terrorist attacks in Somalia on the 4th of October 2011, claiming over 70 lives and injuring many more, the Islamic militant terrorist group Al-Shabaab soon claimed responsibility for the attack.The attacks categorised as religious terrorism predominately occur throughout the Middle-East and Southeast Asia, with the most contentious areas being Afghanistan, Pakistan, and India (Mendelsohn, 2009). To examine Pakistan individually, this region has become a trouble-spot for terrorism resulting in a largely contentious area. The terrorism occurring in Pakistan is predominately religious, resulting in over 350000 Pakistani civilians killed as of 2010 (New York Review of Books, 2011).Pakistan has a long history involving religious conflict, and although m any attempts have been made by the Pakistani government to resolve these conflicts, there is no sign of the conflict coming to an end. The fact that Pakistan is not an overly wealthy nation has contributed to the effectiveness of religious terrorist recruiting, as when individuals have nothing to lose they invest in religious ideology (Mendelsohn, 2009). Although there are many religiously based terrorist organisations, the Taliban is arguably the most dangerous proponent of religious terrorism.It is important to understand the origins, policies, methods, and other information on the organisation before effective policies can be implemented to combat the Taliban’s terrorist tactics. The Taliban is an Islamist militant organisation which has had rule of the majority of Afghanistan from September 1996, however the Taliban-formed state called the ‘Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan’ only gained political recognition as a state from Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the UAE (Mo ckaitis, 2007).However, the attacks on the USA on the 11th of September 2001 saw the Taliban overthrown during the conflict in Afghanistan. The Taliban regrouped and drafted an insurgency movement to oppose the newly formed ‘Islamic Republic of Afghanistan’, and to achieve their motives the use of guerrilla and terrorist tactics were applied (Mockaitis, 2007). Whilst in power the Taliban enforced an extremely strict interpretation of their holy scripture, becoming notorious in the international community for the poor treatment of women (Mockaitis, 2007).This fundamental following of Holy Scripture and Islam law has seen the Taliban use Holy Scripture to justify their violent actions. Whilst not much is known about the leader of the Taliban, Mohammed Omar, a 25 million dollar reward has been issued by the US department of defence for his capture. The policies of the Taliban were initially to disarm Afghanistan, end the lawlessness and heavily enforce the Islamic or Shari a law on the entirety of Afghanistan (Mendelsohn, 2009).The Taliban have been relatively successful in bringing law and order to around 85% of the country in their control, mainly by disarming or conscripting the tribes of Afghanistan (Mockaitis, 2007). Some of the Taliban’s relentless policies and unyielding nature on issues such as the treatment of Osama bin Laden have isolated them internationally resulting in non-recognition by the United Nations regarding their legitimacy, and the imposition of political sanctions aimed at denying the Taliban any funding or aid (Mendelsohn, 2009).As of yet, the Taliban have failed to develop any plan or policy to revive the state of Afghanistan should they retake political control. The methods or tactics utilised by Taliban forces has predominately been a guerrilla struggle against Western forces, however the use of terrorism has brought much notoriety to the organisation itself. However the question of funding is important, how does the Taliban receive its funding? Twelve percent of Afghanistan lives off the opium trade, which constitutes 30 percent of its gross domestic product (Schmidt, 2010).Whilst the Taliban gain finance through the sale of opium and poppy, the decrease in production of poppy would not work against the Taliban, through simple economics this organisation is able to manipulate opium prices which have seen a downward spiral over the past 5 years due to an over-supply of poppy and opium (Schmidt, 2010). Estimations show that the Taliban has stockpiled over eight thousand tonnes of opium in the event poppy production is eradicated by the US government.However the eradication of poppy in Afghanistan would for a short term aid the Taliban as prices would increase exponentially in the face of low supplies, simple economics being exploited by the Taliban (Schmidt, 2010), (UN World Drug Report, 2009). A report given in 2006 analysing the Taliban likened the organisation to a starfish (decentralised org anisation) as opposed to a spider organisation (centralised) (Brafman, Beckstrom, 2006). â€Å"The spider and the starfish both appear to have a number of legs coming out of one body, but that is where the similarity ends.In the case of the spider, what you see is a clear â€Å"head’s head and a leg’s leg. † However, a starfish is entirely different from a spider because the head is not even in charge of anything. In fact, a starfish does not even have a head. If a starfish is cut in half, it does not die. Instead, what you get are two starfish. The long-armed Linckia starfish can even replicate itself from just one piece of an arm. Unlike the spider, having no brain to give the affirmative on anything, the starfish functions as a decentralized network. (Schmidt, p 72, 2010). A table from this report gives a description of the comparison: (See below) The events which occurred on the 8th of August 1998 are evidence to show the danger and lethality of the Taliban and its policies. On the 24th of May 1997 the Taliban occupied the northern town of Mazar-i-Sharif and on the 8th of August 1998 were responsible for an attack which killed over 8000 people of different nationalities including Uzbekistani, and Shiite Iranian (Kelling, Saludin, Von-Feigenblatt, Alis, Shuib, 2010).In this attack the Taliban also attacked the consulate of Iran killing 10 Iranian diplomats, which incidentally generated Iran’s opposition on the political legitimacy of the Taliban (Kelling, Saludin, Von-Feigenblatt, Alis, Shuib, 2010). The Taliban has taken responsibility for countless attacks on both combatant and non-combatant targets, with no signs of a decrease in the frequency of attacks; the Taliban is an extremely dangerous advocate of religious terrorism.The failure of allied forces to subdue the Taliban as of yet has left Afghanistan coloured with destruction, death and poverty. An article in the International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences accused the US of â€Å"ignoring the hope and prospect of Afghanistan†, by being oblivious and promoting victory over the Taliban in order to justify the war on Afghanistan (Kelling, Saludin, Von-Feigenblatt, Alis, Shuib, 2010).The US policy to use military power against the Taliban and other terror organisations has made it more difficult to find a conclusive solution to the violence in Afghanistan; additionally the weakness of the United States’ new government in Afghanistan failed to bring stability and therefore enhanced the terrorism from the Taliban (Kelling, Saludin, Von-Feigenblatt, Alis, Shuib, 2010). The question left is how we stop the terrorism?Through government, military and NGO policy development, political, management, financial and administrative â€Å"mechanisms† arranged to reach explicit goals. This paper will therefore examine various responses to terrorism, and the policies put in place by major international actors. After September 2001, t he member of the Security Council (UN) adopted a set of comprehensive measures to combat terrorism; they did so under Chapter 7 of the UN charter, thereby making all decisions compulsory for all members (Boulden, Weiss, 2004).Two resolutions were particularly important, these being â€Å"Resolution 1368 of September 12†, which legitimised all military action against a terrorist organisation; and â€Å"Resolution 1373 of September 28 2001† which broadened the scope of international responses (Boulden, Weiss, 2004). Resolution 1373 stated that â€Å"all states should prevent and suppress the financing of terrorism, as well as criminalize the willful provision or collection of funds for such acts†.The purpose of this resolution was to minimize the financing of terrorism and to encourage member states to deny safe haven to known terrorists, assist states in need of anti-terrorism measures, and to accelerate the exchange of information regarding terrorist activity; i n other words this resolution deeply encouraged international cooperation in combating terrorism. While the resolve of the Security Council (UN) is to be commended, four problems are still to be addressed.First, although member states of the UN agree on the importance of combating terrorism, member states continue to have different views on the precise nature of these threats, and different opinions on the appropriate responses to these threats (Boulden, Weiss, 2004). The US should take responsibility and forge a consensus on the nature of the terrorist threat and what an appropriate response would be.If the US takes consideration of other states and develops a genuine international response effort, then this should convince other states that the US is not only concerned for itself but for the international community as a whole (Boulden, Weiss, 2004). Secondly, the long term implications for the Security Council’s resolution regarding the legitimization of force against terro rist organizations are problematic. Permission to use military force without a proper criteria for reason has been seen as handing a â€Å"blank check† to the USA.Although the US argues preemptive action and covert military action is necessary to combat terrorism, the absence of an international agreement on a definition for terrorism can lead to the possibility of abuse of this â€Å"blank check† (Boulden, Weiss, 2004). To solve this issue, the UN should engage member states in a discussion to answer the important questions, â€Å"when are terrorist acts the equivalent of armed attacks? †, â€Å"Do imminent threats of attack always justify a military response? † (Boulden, Weiss, 2004).Third, the issue of finance always seems to plague attempts at combating terrorism. The implementation of the UN’s counterterrorist measures will therefore continue to be difficult unless financial assonance is given by member states. A solution to this problem would be the investment of funds into the Counter-terrorism committee (CTC), this committee would thereby invest funding into state counter terrorism agencies who lack the financial capacity to effectively fight terrorism (Boulden, Weiss, 2004).Fourth, the war against terrorism has been labeled as the â€Å"long war†, and it is true that the effort against terrorism will take time and finance, however there must also be an effort against the root causes of terrorism; poverty, disease, social disorder, unstable governments, etc (Boulden, Weiss, 2004). The UN has a promising track record when dealing with these problems, therefore the investment into social development programs will allow for significant advancements in the effort against terrorism (Boulden, Weiss, 2004).This paper will now offer a list of policy recommendations. In order to combat terrorism effectively, Thomas Mockaitis (2007) suggests there should be elements of four broad tasks present. 1. Anti-terrorism to prote ct military forces, installations and personnel and to assist member nataions in protecting their citizens and infrastructure from terrorist attack. 2. Consequence management to aide member states in mitigating the effects of an actual terrorist attack. 3. Counterterrorism to take offensive action against terrorist organizations, personnel and facilities. 4.Military cooperation with civilian institutions, government and private, to defend against terrorism. Evidently this system of counter-terrorism has been drafted as a military doctrine labeled the NATO Concept, which provides an excellent framework for organizing an effective response against terrorism (Mockaitis, 2007). Below is a chart which illustrates the three core measures of combating terrorism. ‘Consequence management’ refers to the measures taken by local, state, and national departments to prepare for and if necessary respond to a terrorist attack (Mockaitis, 2007). Counterterrorism’ and ‘Antit errorism’ is the offensive military enforcement of operations against terrorists (organisations, networks, and individuals), and the economic, social, and diplomatic measures to combat the root causes of terrorism (poverty, civil unrest, etc) (Mockaitis, 2007). All three tasks require effective cooperation and rely on the intelligence which lies at the centre of the three and helps organise the effort (Mockaitis, 2007). This paper has argued that the most dangerous form of terrorism is religious terrorism.In order to deliver an effective argument, this paper was divided into three sections; first, it was argued that religious terrorism is the most dangerous form of terrorism by examining defining it, examining how it is dangerous, and discussing why it is more dangerous than other forms of terrorism. Secondly, this paper argued that the most dangerous proponent of terrorism is the organisation of the Taliban, supporting this claim was an analysis of the group, giving backgrou nd information, information on the Taliban’s policies and recent activities, and the threat this organisation poses on the international community.Lastly this paper analysed and critiqued the anti-terrorism policy of the UN, and provided policy recommendations for all member states to implement, namely the policies currently implemented by NATO forces. This paper was written in order to legitimise religious terrorism as the most dangerous form of terrorism, thereby allowing for more effective international cooperation towards combating terrorism. This paper can therefore conclude that the most dangerous form of terrorism is Religious Terrorism. References: Alexander, Y. (1994).Middle east terrorism: Current Threats and Future Prospects. International library of Terrorism. England: Dartmouth Publishing Co. Brafman, O. , & Beckstrom, R. (2006). The Starfish and the Spider: The Unstoppable Power of Leaderless Organizations. New York: Penguin Group Hoffman, B. (1998). Inside terr orism. New York: Columbia University Press. Kelling, M. , Saludin, M. , Von-Feigenblatt, O. F. , Alis, M. , &Shuib, M. (2010). Taliban: How it Emerged and why the U. S and Pakistan Failed? International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences. Martin, G. (2010).Understanding terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues. (3rd Ed). UK: Sage Publications Mendelsohn, B. (2009). Combating Jihadism. London: University of Chicago Press. Mockaitis, T. (2007). The â€Å"new† terrorism: Myths and Reality. USA: Greenwood Publishing Group Inc. Schmidt, F. (2010). From Islamic warriors to drug lords: The evolution of the Taliban Insurgency. Mediterranean Quarterly, 21(2), 61-1. doi: 10. 1215/10474552-2010-005 The Guardian. (May 13, 2011). Pakistan suicide bomb kills 80 as Taliban seeks revenge for Bin Laden. Retrieved November 20, 2011 from http://www. uardian. co. uk/world/2011/may/13/suicide-bombing-revenge-osama The New York Review of Books. (2011). Why they get Pakistan wrong. Retrieved from http://www. nybooks. com/articles/archives/2011/sep/29/why-they-get-pakistan-wrong/ United Nations. (August, 2010). Afghan civilian casualties rise 31 per cent in first six months of 2010. Retrieved from http://unama. unmissions. org/Default. aspx? tabid=1741&ctl=Details&mid=1882&ItemID=9955 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). (2009). World Drug Report. Received from www. unodc. org/unodc/data-and-analysis/WDR. html

Toyota Motor Manufacturing Case

The sudden increase of the production complexity, in seat volumes and variations, made some evident flaws in the production capabilities of Toyota’s Georgetown production plant. The root problem TMM facing is lack of coordination and planning within the companies’ departments as well with its supplier KFS. For the supplier KFS, TMM didn’t assess their practical production capacity before launching new models. As a result, the sudden change of production volume due to new modifications caused a series of problems in supply quality and timing. The frequent change of demand from TMM made KFS hard to respond and fulfill the orders. As the quality issue of seats occurred, it indicated that KFS was not ready to produce the new model seats with a high volume and to meet demand of variations. The JIT production strategy doesn’t allow supply issues, but in practice, TMM left the vehicles with problematic seats instead of shutting down the production line to avoid high cost, which against traditional TPS. As a result, a greater negative impact on the production line was created, such as more vehicles without seats stuck at overflow area. Additional to the supply issues, the workers in the Georgetown plant were not well trained for assembling new models as well. When they found defective parts, TMM failed to follow up the solutions of such problems; delay in response also made the same problems to occur frequently. On the other hand, overtime became another issue due to low quality work. In the long run, our recommendation to TMM is to setup a cross functional team in order to manage the projects related to the production of new vehicle models. Doing so will lead TMM to a better communication along the different departments and with its suppliers as well. Sharing forecasts and design of future parts in advance with suppliers will improve the production efficiency. Cooperation in design with the supplier will decrease the defective rate in parts production such as the car seats. It is also highly recommended to build up an in-house training program to coach workers to assemble new models appropriately. Workers will be more capable to solve the problem by themselves after training. TMM needs to go back to the TPS and try to solve problems on the line instead of leaving them away. In the short run, TMM should give more time to KFS to fulfill the order, and when the problem occurred, it is better for them to solve together. Reviewing and tracing the problematic parts are necessary; the new team should focus on the complaints from bottom workers, and then give the information back to suppliers (KFS) as soon as possible. In this way, it is much easier to ensure the quality of new arrival parts and in case of the same problem occur again.

Cfd Modeling of in-Cylinder Flow of A Diesel Engine

Three-d path counts of the confirmation and stress stroke of a 4-valve direct-mixture Diesel motor have been completed with a tremendous amount of ignition chambers. a hard and fast number of endorsement calculations of the stress stroke were to start with performed retaining up at the high of the priority record the tip expectation to research the cutoff components of CFD delineation of the in-barrel circulate. The figured development subject in three character ignition masses became differentiated and laser Doppler velocimetry estimations; the connection famous that the 3-D model is sensibly awesome for wrench focuses spherical pinnacle flawlessly centered (TDC). In all possibility, it performs extra for low whirl ignition chambers on the identical time turbulence paces are under foreseen while squish consequences are everyday. In the guiding precept look at, the flow highlights in the motor barrel prepared with extra than a pair chamber arrangements were taken a gander at. For this, entire estimations of the affirmation and weight strokes were achieved below wise running prerequisites and the outfit watched the middle valued at of rate and turbulence dissemination fields obtained in each and each smoldering chamber explored in element of interest. The results verified that the chamber geometry had little have an impact on the in-barrel flow within the center of the affirmation stroke and the preparatory duration of the nervousness stroke. Be that as it's putting off to, the dish form take delivery of a chief stage close TDC and within the early phase of the advancement stroke via controlling each the social affair touched base at the midpoint of infer and the turbulence % fields. An element of the greatest moves in barrel development is using a big amount barrel "tops" or "crowns," the degree that enters t he ignition chamber and is subjected to blazing. truly, on the equal time as more skilled barrel tops were for possible the best discipline focus, quite a variety of now incorporate bowls on apex which have an effect on clever has an have an effect on at the ignition strategy. The barrel dish is certainly used as an aspect of diesel motors. Diesels could now not have an ignition diploma, so the barrel crown it needs to outline the ignition chamber. These automobiles with the marketing consultant of and huge make utilization of chambers with in another way formed crowns, rather than truth that children that with direct implantation becoming little by little unmistakable, gasoline vehicles are establishing to make usage of them as precise. The kingdom of the chamber dish controls the development of air what's extra, gasoline in mild of the fact that the barrel comes up for the anxiety stroke. The air and fuel spin directly right into a vortex within the chamber dish some time as of now smoldering happens, making an unequalled combination via impacting the air/fuel mixture, you could additionally finish better what's greater splendid, greater important ignition, which actuates greater electricity. The dishes have a aggregate of splendid shapes; a couple are additionally laid out to beef up productivity. With direct implantation reworking into likely the most excessive bursting new advancement for gasoline vehicles, assume terribly played chambers to come to be being an increasing quantity of requirements. In short direct-mixture Diesel vehicles, the go with the go with the flow stipulations amid the chamber within the course of the quit of the strain stroke, near apex lifeless belief, aren't weird. For the ignition fram ework those are directed via the air spilling into the chamber with the aid of using the confirmation valves in the path of the activation contraption and by its change inside the midst of the burden stroke. Multiple researchers were that specialize in barrel geometry influencing the movement spread of diesel motor. This degree reviews the sooner distributed summary works, which lays the association and motive for extra work on this count on. This makes an alternate to provide a well-known identifying with recognize to the field additionally is going about whilst uncertain for this conviction. The impacts established that the barrel geometry had little have an effect on the in-chamber path inside the middle of the confirmation stroke and the preparatory period of the nervousness stroke. Be that as it's far warding off to, the dish form count on a important section close TDC and inside the early location of the enlargement stroke with the beneficial asset of controlling each the outfit touched base on the midpoint of advocate and the turbulence speed fields. Their belongings constructed up those estimations definitely underneath expected the turbulence pace. They cleared up the differences with the valuable asset of blunders all through the trial getting to know and the imprisonments of the commonplace k–Ɇº version. Dillies et al. excessively confirmed equal counts of a Diesel motor with one confirmation valve for one blazing chamber, and for this block impacts differentiated sensibly pleasantly and the examinations. From the review of composing, it may be visible that, layout of inlet excessive association and chamber geometry is crucial in an IC motor. Hereafter, this investigate move-check looks upward at the have an effect on of helical-winding merged connection with a remarkable collection of chamber plans at the impelled suggest spin percent within the barrel dish at TDC, whirl rate within the direction of suction and strain stroke, turbulent factor energy style and volumetric productivity at motor pace one thousand rpm.   The approach obtained for the reward work is as takes after. Direction by way of the admission complex is reenacted to think of the in chamber circulation area amid non-responding conditions, which incorporates the accompanying strides: Preprocessor for essentially the most phases entails the making of primary 3D model, matrix technology and settling of the limit stipulations. Demonstrating and lattice is finished in ANSYS FLUENT 14.5 for finishing the pass section. The term is relied upon to examine the capacity of making use of CFD instrument for configuration and streamlining of engine cylinder geometry. The business CFD code ANSYS FLUENT 14.5 is utilized for the investigation of circulates. The CFD bundle incorporates customer interfaces to information limitation parameters and to appear at the results. The code comprises three add-ons   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Geometric model of internal combustion engine manifold Two methodologies are utilized in Fluent 14.5 to fathom incylinder disorders, in designated, 1/2 breed strategy and layering procedure. At the same time the 1/2 breed methodology is utilized for engines with inclined valves like most SI engines, the layering methodology is on the whole utilized for engines with vertical valves like almost always diesel engines. For both strategy said above, in-chamber problems explained in Fluent incorporate of three phases. The predominant stage is to break down the geometry into quite a lot of zones and work them legitimately. By means of setting apart the mannequin into various zones, it's imaginable to use diverse lattice action methods to more than a few locales in a solitary undertaking. The 2d stage is to setup the engine case inside Fluent with the help of a setup diary. The third stage is to perform a transient in-barrel endeavor. The computational subject contains consumption ports and valves, the barrel and the cylinder dish. The number of cells alterations from 0.5 million cells in TDC, to 1.6 million cells in bottom dead centre (BDC). Considering the computational discipline is peculiarly perplexing, made from various zones with various topologies, each zone has been match independently. This method is particularly precious to acquire a satisfactory fine network and to cut down just about the lattice time. The network of the specific sub-areas is assured through approach of discretionary interfaces those accomplice ordinary countenances of contiguous zones. Both admission conduits had been match after a related topology, the cells are organized in the circulate heading and they're joined with a barrel formed organized lattice in the zone upstream of the valves. The cross part over the valves has been developed via transformation of a prepared lattice subject. Amid the stress stroke, as soon as the admission valves are shut, the admission ports sub domains are disengaged from the calculations, in order that amazing the burning chamber is viewed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Cell zone nomenclature and mesh boundary There are particularly three conditions we settle in computational liquid elements quandary. They are Continuity condition, power state of affairs and electricity condition. The flow into of most liquids is probably broke down numerically by the utilization of two situations. The two   with, customarily alluded to due to the fact the Continuity Equation, calls for that the mass of liquid getting into an altered manipulate quantity both leaves that volume or gathers interior it. It’s therefore a "mass equalization" necessity postured in numerical form, and is a scalar state of affairs. the opposite administering situation is the Momentum Equation, or Navier-Stokes , and likely regarded as a "power equalization". Regular pressure is applied as limit circumstance at every the admission and the air waft programs. Append limits are indicated on the correspondent phone face almost the cells above/underneath the valve. No slip divider restriction alongside logarithmic regulation of divider is utilized. Dividers are suggestion to be adiabatic. The turbulent kinetic energy equation can be written as- This mannequin was decided and tuned for Flows with excessive Reynolds numbers. This implies it's suited for streams where the turbulence is close to iso-tropic and is ideal to streams where the vitality direction continues in neighborhood concord as for era.   The turbulent kinetic energy levels during the compression and suction for the three different pistons can be shown as-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Turbulent analysis for piston A                                                              Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Turbulent analysis for piston B  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Figure: Turbulent analysis for piston C   The kind of Turbulent Kinetic vigor with wrench region at 3000 rpm for a number of cylinders. it's far watched that the cylinder design impacts the turbulence of the liquid in the chamber. It achieves the crest esteem amid the greatest valve open. The sort of TKE is surely due to various degree of air incited thru the delta elaborate. The dispersal of KE is with the useful resource of advantage of stepped forward liquid motion. Figure: Efficiency analysis for the three pistons   The consequences from the airing and CFD reproduction the use of FLUENT programming are regarded and examined. Outcomes are appeared in term of diagrams for the replica effects for pressure dissemination, temperature dispersion and speed. The moving lattice is produced by using DYNAMIC MESH schedule, a moving flow component module in FLUENT. In engine operation, valves and the cylinder pass, so the bypass element have got to transport as indicated by means of the use of the precise engine to reenact the fee of valve and cylinder characteristic with wrench issue. Cylinder and cylinder dish development are selected with the resource of the stroke, associating pole and wrench factor. Calculations starts at 360 0 CA and closures at 720 0    CA. An icy movement exam is finished consequently. Icy waft reenactments for IC cars can offer great define data to engineers. these reproductions maintain in thoughts they have an impact on volume proficiency, whirl and tumble traits to be expected taking into account adjustments in port and burning chamber outline, valve elevate timing, or fantastic parameters. Pressure appropriation, temperature appropriation are plotted in the direction of the time business enterprise for special instances. Examine that each addition of a duration step is equivalents to an augmentation of 0.25 ° of wrench element. Cylinder begins from TDC round zero stages and the greatest pressure includes at 360 degree. Closer to the start of burning after the ignitions expand there can be a surprising change of slant of the p-ÃŽ ¸ bend. The load rises swiftly for a couple wrench point levels, and later on actions step by step closer to crest esteem. The best pressure and end of stress stroke is 60 bars and temperature is 985 ok. Figure: Pressure variation vs. the crank position   Twirl and tumble proportions are for the most phase characterized as the percentage of the rakish drive of the in barrel circulation about each and every of the three orthogonal tomahawks. It's standardized in opposition to the identical fuel pivoting as robust physique the equal tomahawks at wrench pace. The ordinary thing system for identifying these percentage is, first the focal factor of the burning chamber is resolved. At that factor the X, Y and Z are eaten with the birthplace of the focal factor of the mass. The Z hub is characterized as being parallel to the road of cylinder movement. The Y pivot is characterized as reverse to Z and parallel to focal pivot of the channel difficult. At lengthy final, the X hub is characterized as reverse to Y and Z.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Swirl ratio for three different pistons configuration The TR with CADs at 1000 rpm engine %. appeared in this research amid suction furthermore, strain strokes. it's watched that the TR proportion changes its size (positive to terrible or the alternative path round) demonstrating not unusual air development alters its direction amid entire cycle with CADs. The needs in the back of this will be: It shows greater suitable the tumble movement, frequently the turbulent engine vitality discharged amid its separate closer to the pinnacle of pressure stroke. Likewise, it facilitates in more turbulence stages on the season of ignition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Figure: Tumble ratio vs. the crank location   Increase of any inward ignition engine is driven simply with the resource of gas talent and outflow necessities. This calls for refinement of the in-chamber circulate, combination association what is more, burning strategies. Outline streamlining of the intake/fritter away port, valves and cylinder dish is vital to determine it out the aforementioned requirements. The utilization of Computational Liquid Dynamics along streamlining devices can present assistance abbreviate the configuration streamlining technique duration. Usual methodology of investigations utilizing circulate seat testing is unreasonable and moreover tedious. Furthermore CFD lets in knowledge into the second one go with the flow subtle factors which maximum generally typically are not capture utilizing movement seat checks. Air movement at some point of the admission complex is one of the important factors, which oversee the engine execution and emanation of multi-barrel diesel cars. Because of this from the writing consider a Helical-winding mixture intake complicated is regarded. The geometry of the cylinder increases the air motion toward the quit of pressure stroke. On this assume work, the internal flow trademark inside the burning council of a diesel engine is examined computationally for the numerous cylinder arrangements.  Ã‚   Amorim, F., Ribeiro, J., Vaz, M., & Valle, R. (2014).   Bai, J., Wang, Q., He, Z., & Zhang, P. (2013). Bari, S. & Saad, I. (2013). CFD modelling of the effect of guide vane swirl and tumble device to generate better in-cylinder air flow in a CI engine fuelled by biodiesel.   D'Errico, G. & Onorati, A. (2006).   Dhale, A., Awari, G., & Singh, M. (2010). Analysis of internal combustion engine with a new concept of porous medium combustion for the future clean engine.   Experimental and CFD Analysis of Combustion in Diesel Engine for Various Ethanol-Diesel Blends. (2016). Fujimoto, H. (1995). A study on the formation of vertical vortex in the cylinder of an I.C. Fujimoto, H. (1995). A Study on the Formation of Vertical Vortex in the Cylinder of an I.C.   Harshavardhan, B. & Mallikarjuna, J. (2013).   Harshavardhan, B. & Mallikarjuna, J. (2013).   Harshavardhan, B. & Mallikarjuna, J. (2015).   Hori, H. (1995). CFD In-Cylinder Flow Simulation of a Engine and the Flow Visualization. JSAE Review, 16(1), 105. https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0389-4304(95)94802-t. Intake Manifold Flow Assessment on a 3-cylinder Natural Aspirated Downsized Engine Using CFD and GT-SUITE. (2016). International Journal Of Engineering, 29(2). Kubota, M., Tokuda, S., & Noguchi, Y. (2016). Development of CFD Inverse Analysis Technology Using the Transient Adjoint Method and Its Application to Engine In-Cylinder Flow.

Terrazas' Entrepreneural Skills and Power in Chihuahua Essay

Terrazas' Entrepreneural Skills and Power in Chihuahua - Essay Example Wealthy miners, haciendas and the landholder had no faith in the leadership and had to relocate locations that were more favorable. However, Terrazas once he took power in the 1860’s he managed to carry various form of transformation that saw his success. Consequently, this period saw the return of both the state and Hacendos to Chihuahua. After the defeat of French, he managed to establish a stable administration. The Apaches were fought to the end and new military colonies were established. There was also guarantee of land to the settlers so long as they could fight against the Indian raiders. His capability to fight off the Apache raiders made him popular among his people. He also managed to divert the tax revenue meant for the federal government and could fund the militia to fight the Indians hence majority of Chihuahuas population and the military colonist. He also used his power to acquire the largest and most progressive haciendas in this region. Moreover, Luis Terrazas had interest in mines and industries and imported machinery that raised production and this enabled him to compete in global arena. His political inclination was also geared toward his interest (Wasserman 15). In this reign, the Creel Terrazas family controlled nearly all the cattle ranches, mines and other form of business. This mostly generated a lot of dissatisfaction among the poor and the less privileged most of which were landless. This occurred mostly during the reign of dictator of Porfirio Diaz (Truthout Web). The role played by haciendas was significant to the elite as it provided much income for their business empire. The main reason for employing act of brutality was to annex land chunk of land from the local indigenous people for business expansion. Moreso, this was usually done with no authority from rural population and communities. During this reign, there was significant development that saw expansion in agriculture, mining and improved transport

Government Failure in Iceland Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Government Failure in Iceland - Essay Example Laws on the ministerial accountability1on the other hand have never been applied in the history of Iceland and in general political accountability is not common. Public confidence in the government has vanished and it is likely that the only way to regain the trust of the public is to redefine public sector accountability. Doing so means to look at the nature of government failure within the Icelandic government and to understand how the entire political system directly or indirectly allows for leeway which often leads to lack of accountability. The catastrophic financial events that shook Icelands economy in 2008 have confirmed the necessity for a complete overhaul of the entire political system. Given the economic reconstruction that is already underway, it is of primary importance to seek renewed government system and to redefine accountability of the public officials. This may also play a key role in reestablishing the trust between Iceland and foreign governments. The initial aim is to analyze the specific nature of government failures within the context of Iceland. ... UK, France). 2. The proposed research Given the overall context described above the research proposal can be summarized under the following points: The initial aim is to analyze the specific nature of government failures within the context of Iceland. Parliamentarian processes and errors will be examined in order to comprehend whether the Parliament - as the heart of the surveillance mechanism which consists of three power branches - has some inherent procedural weaknesses that prevent it from both following and reacting the changes in society.2 Secondly, the question "to what extent the lack of legislative supervision and discipline affect the nature of accountability in the executive branch" will be addressed. 3 Thirdly, clear ideas so as to how to increase political accountability will be developed. In this regard the surveillance mechanism of the three branches of government will be examined in order to provide improvements of its systemic accountability mechanism. Potential changes might include: The establishment of an independent Investigation Committee every two years (with a constitutional mandate) that publishes an annual report on government's transparency, accountability and efficiency. This report would be include simplified version so that ordinary people can read it and it will be publicly available. The Investigation Committee would furthermore investigate whether the delegation of powers functions properly. The possible issues covered will include financing of the judicial branch and legislative discipline. Establishing a new role for the President, namely to oversee the executive branchs decisions in matters concerning the high public interest. Building a complete overhaul of the structure of the

Ebola Virus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ebola Virus - Essay Example Accordingly, there exists up to five Ebola virus species. Out of the five, only four can be accountable for causing diseases in humans. The Ebola virus disease is known to affect West and Central African countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan, and Guinea. In recent times, there have been plentiful reports of the illness finding its way to Asian countries and the United States a fact that has been made possible through the global travel of the infected persons out of Africa. Ebola virus was initially revealed in the year 1976 in Yambuku, Democratic Republic of Congo near River Ebola, where the disease borrows its name (Peters and LeDuc ix). The illness was initially disregarded as a threat; consequently, no vaccine was developed. In addition, the earlier cases of the disease could be contained easily and in the event of fatalities, fewer deaths were reported. It took the attention of the United States military to study the possibilities of weaponizing the virus that made the disease widespread. However, the idea was dropped, and the current outbreaks are said to have originated from fruit bats. The virus was initially thought to be airborne; however, studies conducted by the University of Sussex revealed that it is transmitted through body fluids. Also, the virus finds its way into the human body through cuts on the skin and mucous membranes. The Ebola virus has also been found to be transmitted through sexual intercourse, physical contact by the infected persons and ingestion of breast milk. The disease incapacitates the immune system of the host victim. Persons infected with Ebola virus bear symptoms such as mild nausea, diarrhea, abdominal pains, and bleeding from the eyes. The disease also halts the body from clotting blood resulting in gastrointestinal bleeding. This result to increased wear out of the intestinal mucous membranes and any cuts on the body will ooze blood endlessly (Brooks 32). The

Statutory Interpretation Business Law Assignment Essay

Statutory Interpretation Business Law Assignment - Essay Example Since statutes are presented in written form, it is within the court’s power to translate the written word into the actionable form of law i.e. known as breathing life to the law. However, due to the complexities of language and the imperfect nature of legislation, sometimes the intention or purpose of the law may not be conveniently passed in the wordings of the various Acts. This is where the courts derive their power; ensuring that the intention of Parliament is carried into the law. The power of the court to interpret statutes i.e. statutory interpretation has generated controversy for as long as Parliament has been in existence. This is because of the subjective nature of interpretation which relies heavily on the beliefs and understanding of the presiding judge. Over time, judges have been accused of usurping the role of Parliament and ‘making law’ by giving interpretation to statutes in a manner that suits their version of the law. Lord Denning himself once drew criticism in Magor and St Mellons v Newport Borough Council (1952) HL when he remarked that We do not sit here to pull the language of Parliament to pieces and make nonsense of it. We sit here to find out the intention of Parliament and carry it out and we do this better by filling in the gaps and making sense of the enactment than by opening it up to destructive analysis (pg. 25). While he well intended to maintain Parliament’s supremacy by attempting to interpret acts based on its intention, he went a bit overboard by suggested that the courts could ‘fill in the gaps’ in the law which in itself would be tantamount to making law. On appeal to the House of Lords, Lord Simonds described Denning’s interpretation of the powers of the courts as a â€Å"naked usurpation of the legislative function under the thin guise of interpretation.† The House of Lords instead stated that gaps disclosed in laws can only be remedied through appeals. The extent o f the judicature’s power to interpret law remains blurred which is a major reason judges have often been accused of making law; a role not within their mandate. In Fischer v Bell (1961) and Stock v. Frank Jones (Tipton) Ltd. [1978] 1 WLR 231, the interpretation of the courts of statutes was so distasteful to Parliament that the rulings themselves were overturned through statutes in the same year they were made. This shows that the powers of interpretation are sometimes abused as judges attempt to ‘redefine’ statutes which in their opinion are ambiguous, unfair or unjust. Over the years, several rules of interpretation have come up all in an attempt to guide the courts in the correct usage of their power or in a manner respectful of the separation of powers doctrine. Despite these rules, Twining and Miers (2010) state that over 50 percent of High Court cases and 90 percent of cases before the House of Lords involve aspects of interpretation of the law. Since the c ourt’s interpretation of the law determines how they apply it e.g. in criminal law for purposes of sentencing, the interpretation of the law continues to be a major cause of appeals and a major driving force for litigation. At this juncture, it is necessary to state that the courts may have powers to apply the law; this power is merely incidental to the interpretation that the court makes of the pertinent law. In fact, this power is often

Competition Policy and a Single European Market Research Paper

Competition Policy and a Single European Market - Research Paper Example Being a member of the European EMU (Economic and Monetary Union) may be defined on the basis of four aspects. First, the members are defined by a single currency. Secondly, they not only enjoy a common monetary policy, but they also share similar interest rates. Then there is the issue of budget deficit limits, which in this case has been set at 3 per cent of a member country’s GDP. Finally, members enjoy capital; market integration. Talk has been rife that CEECs (Central and Eastern European Countries) may enlist for membership of EMU. However, there are a few elements that hinder such a move. These countries are poor, with low wage and income earner. They have low populations, and their economy may at best be said to be transitory. In addition, they are also industrially different, relative to the EMU countries. In the event that the CEECs become EMU members. Chances are that price, wage and cost transparency of industrial products may be experienced (Oudenaren 2005). In add ition, there will no longer be a market barrier that exists between EMU members and non-EMU members (Ackerman 2006). This in effect will lead to an expanded market to East and Central Europe. Without a doubt, the idea of CEECs joining EMU shall have far-reaching repercussions. For starters, we might very well witness a rise in migration to west EU, because of the availability of better-paying jobs and living conditions. On the other hand, the risk of doing business could as well increase, because of the industrial differences in doing business between, on the one hand, the CEECs and on the other hand, the countries in west EU (Oudenaren 2005).

Identify and discuss three social changes that would need in the Essay

Identify and discuss three social changes that would need in the United States to move toward being a more peaceful(non-violent) - Essay Example The people are not supposed to be each other’s enemies (Vesterman, 2007). First, US must vigorously pursue its diplomatic relations with the Arab world and develop a relation of collaboration and partnership for global economic concerns and amity in relations. The past decades proved that United States has been hostile to countries where perceived terrorist groups are existing and where leaders are inclined to violate denuclearization efforts of the United Nations. The global conditions require that venues for dialogue, interaction, and interfaith discourse be internationalized as inherent not only in diplomatic relations but also in the development of amity of nations to attain global peace. Second, the United States must pursue cultural discourse with the rest of the global community to fully appreciate the diversity and multicultural dimension of the global village. This can take place in both online and non-online settings where open communication is possible and where soc io-cultural exchanges can be undertaken. This cultural nobility can be integrated as a policy in security management. As US, like its other global alliances, use the military forces in the intervention programs to conflict-affected communities and in regions where reconstruction or rehabilitation is undertaken, the forces should likewise be trained and educated to promote cultural respect and sensitivities to improve US international relations. This can likewise assuage the creation of leeway for economic exchanges where US has interest for trading, especially in oil production. At the domestic level, rigorous transformative policy formulation and enforcement should be undertaken with primacy on providing strategic resolution to domestic issues on job creation, social services delivery, provision of support to communities affected by climate changes (on reconstruction and rehabilitation) and engaging communities for resiliency. It is likewise paramount that the US must focus on the problems of immigration and encourage their return to their original countries to reduce the risks and vulnerabilities of domestic economy as their influx also added to the problems of unfriendly relations, poor social cohesion, and internal conflicts of interests (Malcom X, 1964). Anent thereto, the government should realize that social changes are necessary to attain a positive social changes where individuals and non-government participation is fully appreciated in nurturing world peace and social cohesion. In the historic epoch of civilizations, only peaceful discourse, negotiations, and open interaction can create an environment of peace that could encourage development workers and stakeholders to come together and discuss their situations to advance it at a higher level of relations (Vesterman, 2007). Violence and wars out of conflict of interests created losses and even its strategic resolution can only be created in the same path for peace. For peace can only be attained thr ough peaceful means notwithstanding the fact that politics have showed the need for peoples, as stakeholders, to take part in social transformation to make it effective and reflective of its dreams or aspirations as peoples (Vesterman, 2007; Malcom X,

Southwest Airlines - External Environment Analysis Essay - 1

Southwest Airlines - External Environment Analysis - Essay Example This paper will look at the Five Force Model affecting the degree of competition as developed by Michael Porter and discuss the effect of each factor on the airline industry. We will also conduct a PEST analysis for Southwest Airlines as part of the airline industry. The Porter Five-Force Model Michael Porter put forth his Five Force Model in his groundbreaking work ‘Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors’ back in 1980. In the decades that followed, he has further explored the global business arena in terms of competition, the value chain, the competitive advantage of nations and even how to create and sustain superior performance in business. Porter maintains that the five forces that affect the level of competition among firms in an industry are (1) barriers to entry and exit; (2) threat of substitutes; (3) bargaining power of buyers; (4) power of suppliers and (5) existing rivalry between firms. In the same work, Porter has also anal yzed industries as falling into one of the following five groups: (a) Fragmented; (b) Emerging; (c) Mature; (d) Declining and (e) Global (Porter, 1980). In fact, Porter’s analysis serves as a good theoretical tool to supplement a firm’s PEST analysis, which we shall now conduct for the airline industry in general and Southwest Airlines in particular. Sources-barriers to entry and exit: The high cost of entry and exit in the airline industry globally include investment in equipment, infrastructure, buildings and facilities, an experienced workforce and aircraft maintenance and inspection, insurance, safety and security features. The high cost of aircraft and fuel is also affecting airline sustainability and the bottom line (Southwest website, 2012). Sources-threat of substitutes: Alternative choices for air passengers would include fast trains, buses, automobiles and even ferry services. However, nothing beats the convenience of an airplane. Terrorist threats, luggage r estrictions and safety and security checks can also scare passenger away (Porter, 1980). Sources-bargaining power of buyers: With the Passenger Protection Act in place to safeguard customers against price hikes, and insurance, safety and security measures that must be maintained at all times, and discount prices that are eagerly picked up by bargaining customers, this puts the buyers in the driving seat on many counts (David, 2011). Club memberships and frequent flyer miles may be offered to regular passengers to help retain their loyalty, and there are often possibilities of an upgrade to a higher class if seating is available.   Sources-power of suppliers: McDonnell Douglas and Airbus Industries are two of the most well-recognized aircraft manufacturing firms having a global recognition and reputation. Both of these firms take most of the world’s orders but there are also a number of smaller firms that make smaller and lighter aircraft for other purposes.

African and Native American Slavery Essay Example for Free

African and Native American Slavery Essay The 1500s, a time of discovery, was when the Europeans came to dominate most of the New World. The Europeans traveled to Africa and captured Africans to help develop their land and satisfy their need for power. I feel that the treatment of the Indians and Africans by the Europeans was completely unjustifiable. While the Indians and Africans were less technologically advanced and the Europeans were uneducated, in this particular field, nothing can compensate for the actions of the Europeans. As Europeans began to settle new lands they began their exploration of the foreign worlds. What they found was the opposite of what they expected. They found what they thought was a new breed of humans. In reality they were just Native Americans. These Indians were less technologically advanced than the Europeans. They also worshipped different and multiple gods and ate different foods. Europeans saw this as barbaric, so they treated them as barbarians. In the beginning Native Americans hadnt the faintest idea of what the Europeans had in mind when they said trade. They figured that when the White Man came and showed all that hospitality they meant it. Of course, they didnt, the Europeans captured the Indians to be used as slaves. They were also slaughtered and raped because of resistance to leave their land. If any Indians refused to leave their land they would be killed. The women were raped for sick and disgusting reasons. Europeans didnt feel that the women, or men for that matter, were worth anything as humans so they were beat and raped without any thought about what they might be doing. As we watched the movie Roots, I noticed a part in the movie where they were on a ship and a man brings in a black woman, who was a slave. The man offered her to the ships captain and referred to her as a belly warmer. That got me to thinking what could be going on in that mans head as he said that. When I heard that I was shocked that a man could treat someone like that. People have feelings and cannot be treated as objects. Maybe the Europeans didn t realize that these people were, in fact people, and that drove them to this awful conclusion that they could treat people this way. As Europeans settled their land and began to build houses, farms and plantations, they realized that they needed servants to assist them in their farming. So people would travel to Africa capture blacks and then sell them to merchants and plantation owners. They would then beat them and put them to long, grueling work. They would treat them as they did the Indians, and for much the same reason. They figured that since the blacks were black and appeared to be less advanced then they must be less significant. People of the next generation whose parents owned slaves and grew up thinking slaves were okay is understandable. I just dont feel that anything could justify treating the slaves they way they did. they had absolutely no respect for them. They would savagely beat them to get them to work harder than humanly possible and they would rape the women. I dont think that I will ever know how any one could do such a thing. I conclusion I strongly feel that the way Europeans treated people that were less technologically advanced is completely and utterly wrong. It is difficult to contemplate what was going on in their heads as they were capturing them, killing them and even raping them. I can not believe how they could think that the color of someones ones skin or religious beliefs could make them less human. I am glad I live in a country based on the belief that all men are created equal.

Reasons For Legalising Euthanasia Sociology Essay

Reasons For Legalising Euthanasia Sociology Essay What is euthanasia? There are a lot of definitions of euthanasia which have the similar meanings with each other, and here are some definitions from different say. From Medicine Net.com The word euthanasia comes straight out of the Greek eu, goodly or well + thanatos, death = the good death and for 18th-century writers in England that was what euthanasia meant, a good death, a welcome way to depart quietly and well from life. (Medical Net.com, Medical dictionary) From Answer.com The act or practice of ending the life of an individual suffering from a terminal illness or an incurable condition, as by lethal injection or the suspension of extraordinary medical treatment. (Answer.com, the worlds leading QA site) From wiseGEEK Euthanasia is the process of painlessly helping a terminally ill person to die. (wiseGEEK) Legalization of euthanasia The legalization of euthanasia is not common, it still cause intense debate among people. Up to now, there are two countries accept the legalization of euthanasia, Netherland and Belgium. Netherland is the first country that legalizes euthanasia, the House of Representatives in Netherland approved the proposed law of euthanasia on the 28th of November in 2000 and, finally the Senate in Netherland allowed the legalization of euthanasia on the 10th April in 2001. Belgium is the second country that approves the legalization of euthanasia. After two days debate, the lower house of the Belgian parliament approved the bill by 86 votes in favors, 51 against and with 10 abstentions. The Belgian parliament finally passed law partially legalizing euthanasia in 2002. Though these two countries allow euthanasia and mercy killing that carry out by doctors, they set up strict rules to govern it. For examples, the person who request to euthanize must be conscious and he or she must has suffered from the prolonged physical and mental pains of terminal illness, more than one medical opinion are needed to approve each case of euthanasia. Moreover, actually there are some places which are allow people to commit some kinds of euthanasia. For instance, physician-assisted suicide is allowed in Swiss, doctor can remove patients respirator in some special cases and, terminal patients are allowed to decide continue the treatment or not by themselves in Denmark. On the other hand, there are still lots of countries fight against the legalization of euthanasia, including Italy, Vatican, Russia, German and Britain..etc. Reason for euthanasia There are a number of reasons for euthanasia, including the pains that the patients suffered, the dead life that patients had, the family suffers and the economic burden to the society. More detailed explanations will carry out in the following paragraphs: The prolonged pain that the patients suffered People always say life is a divine gift to everyone, gifts should be enjoyable, and people should live enjoyably. However, for those who suffer from terminal illness, they have no hopes and they suffered from the great physical and metal pains in every moment, they are not enjoying their life, but being torturing. For those terminal illness patients, living can be a torture and euthanasia is an ideal way to die, people can die without any pains. So why dont people choose to die peacefully rather than live with pains? Prolonged death is not life Comatose patient or vegetable refer to person who is physically alive but mentally inactive. They cant move, cant do anything but just in coma condition all the time, it is not a life real indeed. Though they might recover, the probability is very small. Without own thinking and the ability to move, that means they are not really living. The pain and pressure that the patients family suffered Although terminal patients and vegetable are always being take care by the nurse and doctors and live in the hospital, it doesnt mean that their family members no need to take care of them. Since the staffs are not only take care of one terminal patient, so they can provide limited care only. For example, terminal patients and vegetable needs peoples care, it is important to have somebody talk to them even they cant response, thats what their family have to do. It is not difficult to imagine how tired they are keeping go to the hospital everyday and sometimes might be have to go there several times per day. So, euthanasia is not only a way to escape for the patients, but their family as well. Economic burden to the society As the report mentioned above, prolonged death is not life, so it is necessary for people to consider continue spending money on those patients or not. Terminal patients and comatose have a very low chance to recover, however, the medical expenses for maintaining their life is quite heavy. Generally, the expense for a comatose is $8000 $10000 per month, it seems that the cost is not so high. But, there are number of patients, lets take America as an example, the medical expenses spent on those patients cost 10 70 billions US dollars each year because of the large amount of patients. Although it is merciless to include the economic factor in the reasons of euthanasia, we are living in a century which is utilitarianism always comes first, we have to accept this ruthless fact. Arguments against the legalization of euthanasia After listing the reasons for euthanasia, it comes to another controversial issue which is related to euthanasia, the legalization of euthanasia. Up to now, there are only two countries legalize euthanasia, it reflects that the legalization of euthanasia still need more discussion and the report is going to point out the arguments against this issue. There are three arguments against the legalization of euthanasia. Euthanasia can be considered as murder Law functions as a tool that maintain the peace of the society and delimit the truth and falsehood in the society. Therefore, when considering the legalization of euthanasia, we must ensure it is not conflict with the existing law. Murder means someone kills the others, it is illegal in all countries. Euthanasia ends peoples life, actually it is a kind of murder too, and the legalization of euthanasia indicates the legalization of murder as well. To adhere the principles of law, euthanasia should not be legalized. Also, the concept of euthanasia is conflict with the ethics and violates the humanism, it is a uncivilized behavior that causes the wrong values in the society. Life must be protected and promoted in all circumferences life is a divine gift that no one has the right to take it away, except god. Life is precious to everyone, thats why we have being taught that killing people is definitely wrong when we were children and we also set up law to punish murderer. All these things are used to protect our life. Furthermore, a positive outlook of life should be promoted instead of treat the end of life as a way to escape. This positive attitude is what an improving society should have, look forward to the future and never give up in any situations. A favor is provided for lawless person The legalization of euthanasia allows people to end their life, at the same time, it allows people to end the others life too. As a result, there are lawless person can make use of this law to achieve their evil wants. For instance, people who dont want to provide for their aged parents may make use of euthanasia to end their parents life and, euthanasia can be a tool that help the lawless person to get the inheritance earlier by ending their parents life. Data from survey A survey on euthanasia has carried out, there are totally 30 people who come have different nationalities, religions, genders and ages do the survey. The survey consists of 7 questions, which focus on different aspects of euthanasia and some statistics will show below. To ensure all interviewees know what euthanasia is, the above question is the first question of the survey and the pie chart shows the result. According to the statistics, 70% of the interviewees know the term euthanasia, 27% of them are not quite sure what euthanasia is and only 3% of them dont know what euthanasia is. This result reflects the issue of euthanasia is quite popular among people, but there are still some people not sure what euthanasia is. During the survey, we found that the reason of most people chose the answer NOT SURE is they dont know the difference between euthanasia and suicide. It can be concluded that most people know the term euthanasia but there is still misconstruction about euthanasia existing in the society. According to the statistics, the total number of people who think euthanasia is in conflict with moral values is 13, slightly higher than the number of people who answered NO. The distribution of the statistics is that the people in the age group of 18-29 are tending to answer NO while people in the age group of 30-40 and 41 or above are more likely to choose YES. It indicates the different thinking and values between the younger people and middle -agers and old people. In the youths values, they mostly think there is no conflict between euthanasia and their moral values, but in middle-agers and old peoples eyes, it is an irreconcilable conflict. Another remarkable point is people aged above 30 are generally having their stand on this question, only 1 of them has no stand on it. Comparing the number of the other age groups, the younger age groups have a total number of 4 people choosing the answer NOT SURE, it is obvious that the younger are not having definite view. This phenomenon occurs can be explained by the age of people, it is a comprehensive fact since people mental is mature with their age. The general trend is people are not agreeing on the legalization of euthanasia. Referring to the statistics, 9 people agree legalizing euthanasia, 14 people disagree the legalization of euthanasia and the rest of them have no stand. Among five groups of people from different countries, Chineses attitude on the legalization of euthanasia is the most clear and definite. There are 16 Chinese interviewees in total, 4 of them agree the legalization of euthanasia and 10 of them do not, it shows that more than 50% of them oppose the legalization of euthanasia, it is a definite statistics compare with the result of the other countries. On the contrary, Australian is more likely to agree the legalization of euthanasia, there are 4 people out of 8 people in Australia agree to legalize euthanasia, while the other 50% of the people are disagree or have no stand. Apart from the above two nations, the other nations are having an indefinite attitude, people from Japan, Korea and France are tend to choose NOT SURE. Referring to the result, there are 2 Koreans, a Japanese and a French chose NOT SURE. It reflects these three nations dont have an identical attitude on this issue. In this question, more than one answer can be chose, so the above result has more than 30 votes in total. According to the result, there are 28 interviewees think that the family members of a person should be authorized to decide the person commit euthanasia or not, nearly all of the interviewees chose this option. The number of people chose the option, himself or herself, is slightly fewer than the option, family members, just 3 more people have chosen family members than himself or herself. It reflects people concern on the patients family members decision the most, even more than the patients himself or herself. Doctor is the choice that falls behind the option, himself or herself, there are 14 people chose this option. It reflects that though doctors are providing professional medical advice, most people dont consider them to be the one who approve the commitment of euthanasia. It can be explained by the identity of doctors, since the doctor is just the person who cures the patients, the relationship between the family members and the patient is much closer than doctors and the patients. The least popular choice is his or her friends, there are only 2 people chose this choice. It is not difficult to understand this result, it is because friends are outsider in this case. Conclusion and Recommendation In this report, a lot of researches and a survey about euthanasia have been carried out. After researching into the issue of euthanasia, euthanasia can be concluded as ending a life without pains and there are both pros and cons on the legalization of euthanasia. Referring to the result of the survey, there are several discoveries after the analysis. To summarize, most people know the term euthanasia but there is still misconstruction about euthanasia existing in the society, older people are more likely to think the euthanasia is in conflict with their moral values while the younger do not, the general trend is people are not agreeing on the legalization of euthanasia and family members of a person is the one that people think they should be authorized to decide the person commit euthanasia or not. Base on the above conclusion and findings from report, a number of recommendations have raised. Firstly, I recommend people spend more time on knowing the true meaning of euthanasia since it is a popular issue in the society, but there are still some people misunderstand the term euthanasia. At the same time, it is the governments responsibility to ensure their citizens have enough understanding on the public issues, so I suggest the government try to use different ways to teach people a correct meaning of euthanasia. The last thing I would like to suggest is the government has to consider twice before legalizing euthanasia because it is an issue that affect a lot of aspects, like ethics and religion. If the government legalizes euthanasia thoughtlessly, the society may in a state of chaos.

Geographical Analysis of Nankana Sahib, Pakistan

Geographical Analysis of Nankana Sahib, Pakistan Introduction of Nankana sahib: A brief history of city: This city was named after the first Guru of Sikhs Guru Nanak Dev Ji. It is capital of Nankana Sahib District. This city has historic significance regarding religion because Guru Nanak Dev Ji spread the light of the universal message to this world so it is a city of high historic and religious value and is a popular pilgrimage site for Sikhs from all over the world especially India. (http://www.sgpc.net/historical-gurdwaras/gurdwaras_in_pakistan.asp, 2011) It is bounded by Hafizabad on North and located about 75 kilometers south west of Lahore and about 55 kilometers east of Faisalabad and Its Southern boundary is formed by district Okara. (http://nha.gov.pk/?option=com_contentview=articleid=403%3Anankana-sahibcatid=62%3AtourismItemid=82showall=1, 2011) Earlier the township was known as Rai-Bhoi-Di-Talwandi and was renamed after the birth of Guru Nanak as Nankana Sahib. Formerly the area around Nankana Sahib was a tehsil of district Sheikhupura District. In 2005 the Punjab Government decide to rear the status of city as a District. Climate and soil conditions of city: â€Å"The climate of the city is subject to extreme deviations. From the middle of December to the middle of March the air is very moist or cold and light to moderate rain falls at intervals. The season of the winter rains is followed by a hex of very pleasant weather. In April the temperature rises fast and the two consecutive months are very hot. Towards the end of June Monsoon conditions appear and during the following two and a half months spells of rainy weather alternate with intervals of hot oppressive weather. The average rainfall in the district is about 635 mm. The upland or the Bar in the North West, in the natural condition, is a level prairie thickly dotted over with a stunted under-growth of bush jungle. The Bar Soil is popularly known as Missie. The low land along the river Ravi has light soil. The central portion which is the Deg Valley has stiff soil. Stiff soil is either Rohi or Kallarathi depending on the salt (kallar) contents.† (Awan, 2009) Geographical limits: lat Administrative limits: Formerly the city was a tehsil of Sheikhupura District. In May 2005 the Government of Punjab decided to raise the status of the city as a District with an aim that the economic condition of city along with the surrounding areas lift because it is a pilgrimage center for Sikhs from all over the globe. There is development especially of road network along all the city. Changes has been made in the administrative bodies of city form tehsil to district level administration. Nankana Sahib District is administratively sectioned into three tehsils. Nankana Sahib Sangla Hill Shahkot On 1 December 2008, Safdarabad was reattached to Sheikhupura District. (http://www.dawn.com/news/138586/nankana-becomes-district, 2005) Development in Nankana city: Private impresarios and State Government have planned to develop Nankana Sahib District with various projects, including: A rest house for Sikh pilgrims A new International Hotel for the people of the district A shopping mall A housing scheme A modern hospital A road-link to the Lahore and Faisalabad dual-carriageway District Complex Nankana Sahib The International Guru Nanak University The prospect for development of an airport has been outstretched in the district Nankana Sahib. The Government of Punjab has decided to link the city with provincial capital Lahore. (http://punjabroadways.gov.in/amritsar-nankanasahib.htm, 2006) Departments in Nankana district: District Education Department District Health care Department District Police Department District Law and Order Department District Agriculture Department District Finance Department District Development Department District Transportation Department District Infrastructure Department District Telecommunications Department District Human Right Department Deputy District Officers Religious Department Election Commission Department NADRA Department Tehsil Municipal Administration Department Wapda Department Industrial Department District Fishers Department District Forest Department (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nankana_Sahib_District#Clans_settled_in_District_Nankana, 2011) Demography and Language: According to the 1998 census of Pakistan Punjabi is spoken by 98% population of the city. Shahmukhi script is mostly used by natives but Nankana Sahib is one of few cities of Pakistan where the Gurmukhi dialect is also understood by the locals. The Punjabi dialects spoken in the district are; Majhi dialect which is spoken by the majority of district. Malwi dialect spoken by the migrated people from India Punjab. Urdu is also used and spoken as national language in the offices and education centers and English is also spoken and understood by educated people. According to Punjab Development Statistics 2008, total population of Nankana Sahib District is 1,466 thousands persons out of which 762 thousands are males and 704 thousands are females. Density of population in the district is 539 persons per square Kilometer. Muslims are in greater in population size 97% of population is Muslim and only 3% are Sikhs. Tehsil wise rural and urban population is given in the table: TOWN-WISE DISTRIBUTION OF URBAN RURAL POPULATION NAME OF TOWN POPULATION (THOUSAND PERSON) URBAN RURAL TOTAL Nankana Sahib 79 705 784 Safdarabad 54 210 264 Sangla Hill 58 138 196 Shahkot 45 177 222 Total 236 1230 1466 Source: Punjab Development Statistics 2008. (Awan, 2009) Infra-structural facilities: Communication network: A) Road links. The city has 1289.84 kilometers metaled roads in length. There has been different plans of construction and development in the city regarding roads for connecting it with big cities like Lahore, Sheikhupura, and Faisalabad through metal roads. For this purpose the government of Punjab is completing an interchange at Khangah Dogra on M-2 motor way which is connecting Lahore with Islamabad and is almost 5kms away from city Nankana. This project will help in development of newly formed district. This interchange will also give access to the Grand Trunk Road which is leading towards Indian Punjab from Wagah Border. A Nankana Sahib-Amritsar bus was initiated by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh of India for Sikhs. B) Rail linkage. There are three major Rail heads in the district, including Nankana Sahib, Safdarabad, and Sangla Hill. Through these linkages the city has been connected to Lahore and Faisalabad districts. A train from Amritsar India via Wagah Border Lahore also came to Nankana city. Power supply station: There are 9 grid stations in the district varying in capacity between 66 KV to 132 KV. Telecommunication exchanges: The district has 30 telephone exchanges operating with varying capacity from 50 lines to 7822 lines. Mobile phone services of different networks are also available. Social infrastructural Facilities in the District: SOCIAL INFRA-STRUCTURAL FACILITIES TEHSIL PRIMARY/MIDDLE/ HIGH SCHOOL COLLEGE HOSPITAL POLICE STATION RAILWY STATIONS POST OFFICE BANKS Nankana Sahib 732 3 1 7 3 8 33 Safdarabad 210 0 0 2 4 2 10 Sangla Hill 129 2 0 2 4 2 9 Shahkot 145 2 0 2 0 3 13 Total 1216 7 1 13 11 15 65 The following table is showing the details of social facilities in the district on Tehsil level; Source: Punjab Development Statistics 2008 / Respective District Offices. (Awan, 2009) Natural resources: Agriculture: Main crops. Rice, sugarcane, and wheat are the main crops cultivated in the district. The production of crops between years 2005-06 to 2007-08 are given in the table below; PRODUCTION OF MAIN CROPS (2005-06 to 2007-08) Crops PRODUCTION (M.TONS) 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Sugarcane 667 850 941 Wheat 414 411 451 Rice 173 164 180 Source: Directorate of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Punjab. (Awan, 2009) Besides, Maize, Bajra, Cotton, Mash, Mong, Jawar, Masoor, Oil seeds such as Mustard, Sun Flower are also grown in minor quantities in the district. Main fruits: Guava and Citrus are the main fruits grown in the district which are cultivated there production during the period of 2005-06 to 2007-08 is given below in the following table: Production of Main Fruits (2005-06 to 2007-08) Fruits Production (M.TONS) 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Guava 24298 33644 29527 Citrus 16285 10400 9443 Source: Directorate of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Punjab. (Awan, 2009) Besides other fruits including Mango, Banana, Litchi, Jaman and Phalsa are also grown in minor quantities in the district. Vegetables: Carrot, Cauliflower, Potatoes, and Onion are main vegetables grown in the district their production during the years 2005-06 to 2007-08 is shown in the table given below; Production of Main Vegetables (2005-06 to 2007-08) VEGETABLE Production (M.TONS) 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 Potatoes 2059 3618 2896 Carrot 10558 9854 10311 Cauliflower 21859 17602 17553 Onion 14109 14218 13222 Source: Directorate of Agriculture, Crop Reporting Service, Punjab. (Awan, 2009) Besides Turnip, Peas, Tomato, Chilies and Garlic are also cultivated in the district in minor quantities. Forests: About 1.3 % of the total area of the district is under forests, which is an area of 1068.16 Hectares. There is also plantation of 955 Kilometers of tress in linear pattern alongside the roads/rails/canals in the district. Kau, Phalai, Kikar and Shisham are types of trees grown in the district. Livestock: Animal population. The main animals which are in the district are Goats, Sheep, Cattle, and Buffalos and their population is shown in the table given below, Animal population ANIMAL POPULATION ANIMAL POPULATION (Thousand HEADS) Goats 256 Cattle 130 Sheep 39 Buffaloes 401 Source: Punjab Development Statistics 2008. (Awan, 2009) Poultry population: According to Punjab Development Statistics 2008 there 62 layer and 386 Broiler poultry farms in the district having capacity of 229 thousands and 9653 bird respectively. There are also 4 breeding farms having capacity of 510 thousand birds. Available Hides/Skins from Slaughter houses: In year 2006-07 animals which were slaughtered in the recognized or un-recognized slaughter houses are 51000 animals which is sound estimate of availability of hides and skins in the district as per 2008 Punjab Development Statistics. The availability of slaughter house by – products is estimated as under:- Blood 17.65 M.TONS Bones 86.10 M.TONS Tallow 17.91 M.TONS Wool production: The total population of sheep is 39 thousand heads in the district from which approximately 39 M.TONS rough wool is produced annually. Literature review: Introduction: One of the most important and touchy issues of our time is utilization of energy resources. Energy provisions are compulsory to improve the infrastructure, transport, roads, industry, and construction of buildings to quicken the development of country. Pakistan is meeting severe challenge of energy deficit due to enormous increase in demand, growth of industrial zones, increment in population growth rate, poor organization of energy resources, deficient plans, devoid in implementation of policies regarding energy. (Munir, 2006) Researches in past: In past work has been done on solar panels in fields of remote sensing and GIS in different parts of world. A few of them are discussed over here, â€Å"A research on the topic Satellite remote sensing for identification of solar potential sites in Pakistan has been made. The study area is located at between longitude 62 and 75 degree east and latitude 24 and 37 degree north. Material and methods: satellite images were used in this study to identify the solar potential sites in Pakistan. Satellite data of NOAA was used which has focus on conditions of oceans and the atmosphere data which was free available on their website. Images from year 2005-2009 were selected of months including June, July and August these months were selected because these are monsoon months with maximum cloud cover. Precipitation data of following months having been collected from Meteorological department Pakistan. Data interpretation and analysis: ENVI and GIS are the main software packages that are employed for this satellite imagery analysis. Data Processing: Geo referencing Enhancement Selection of area of interest for classification (ROI) Supervised Classification (maximum likelihood method) Subset (Using Pakistan Boundaries) Vector comparison Composite (Monthly Maps) Data analysis: In order to find out least cloudless area, UNOIN operation has been performed which was most appropriate for combing cloud cover vector layers of different years and resultant vector layer shows the area with and without cloud cover. Final step involve to overlay the Pakistan district vector layer on each UNION layer, which provides location of least cloudless district in Pakistan. Results and conclusion: The results indicated that Dera Ghazi Khan and Multan have maximum potential for solar sites in whole Pakistan. While Quetta is selected to be a city receiving maximum solar radiation. Cholistan desert has been quite favorable for solar energy harvesting. In spite of having a huge potential of energy resources, Pakistan still remains an energy scarce country and has to heavily depend on imports to fulfill its energy demands.† (Ahmad, Aziz, Wahid, Basir, 2013) â€Å"A research on the topic A Simple Solar Radiation Index for Wildlife Habitat Studies has also been made. Study Area: They illustrated the use of SRI (solar radiation index) is an example application in which they tested for niche separation among bighorn sheep, elk, and mule deer during winter along a single environmental axis. The Gardiner Basin area of northern Yellowstone winter range (NYWR) USA. Houston and Despain gave the detailed description of area. The elevations in the area ranged about 1500m to 3350m. Methods: Solar radiation Index is derived by them by using the general equation for hourly extraterrestrial radiation striking an arbitrarily oriented surface. Relationship to Hill shade: Ciarniello et al. (2005) calculated hill shade values using a digital elevation model DEM and ArcGIS 8.3 version used those values as surrogate for solar radiation. The hillshade index was difficult to evaluate because algorithm for calculating hillshade is not given. Ungulate Niche Separation: They calculated slope and aspect from 30 m DEM and determined the density of use by bighorn sheep, elk, and mule deer from radio telemetry data gathered in previous studies. Results and discussions: In both comparison of relationship to hillshade with different values of azimuth and elevation they observe inexplicable behavior in values of hillshade. For all species examined winter use was concentrated in locations receiving relatively high levels of solar radiation. They found no difference in allocation of winter use by bighorn sheep and elk with respect to solar radiation. Our SRI is designed to enhance wildlife habitat models containing a solar radiation component by reducing noise improving interpretability and minimizing the number of model covariates. Ultimately this promotes greater understanding of the determinants of wild life habitat relationships and in turn improved decision making by wildlife managers.† (Vore, Ibry, Keating, Gogan, 2007) â€Å"Work regarding solar radiation calculations has also been made on the following topic: The Calculation of Solar and Net Radiation in Mountain Terrain, There is at present a need for reliable data on fluxes of solar and net radiation in hilly terrain. This paper develops a model which uses cloud temperature data to obtain above radiation fluxes in a mesoscale mountainous environment at Risdon Tasmania. The model was tested against climatological measurements of solar radiation in a horizontal area and was found to be satisfactory. Extending the test into a mountainous terrain is not practicable since measurements of solar and net radiations in such environment would be disturbed by the high forest and vegetation cover. The model must be viewed as an estimation of the solar and net radiation input into the vegetation-soil system. Diffuse solar radiation is an important component of solar radiation flux in this cloudy and temperate marine climate. Due to its isotropic nature diffuse solar radiation minimizes spatial differences in solar and net radiation receipt. Considerable interception of direct solar radiation occurs in winter time and therefore differences in solar and net radiation receipt are highest then. In winter time north facing slopes will receive the highest radiation while south facing slopes are largely in shadow and receive mostly diffuse solar radiation. Conclusion: This paper has indicated a method for estimating incident direct, diffuse and net radiation in mountainous terrains. The model has performed adequately when tested against climatological estimates of direct and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal surface. The results leave open several paths of research. Transmission of radiation through the vegetation canopy could be studied in this mesoscale terrain. Also important are the implications of these results to the meso-scale water balance. Pan evaporation correlates well with net radiation (Kirkpatrick Nunez, 1980) which implies that approximate microscale water budgets could be obtained in the study area if the assumption is made that precipitation is constant. In summary, it is felt that the study of the incident radiation must represent a first step in under-standing the energy exchanges between the surface and the atmosphere in this complex environment.† (Nunez, 1980) â€Å"Research has also been done regarding solar radiation calculation on the topic named as: Modeling a Solar Radiation Topoclimatology for the Rio Grande River Basin.

The Benefits and Drawbacks of Proportional Representation Essay

Every state has its own distinct electoral system in choosing their government, Britain is not an exception. It is a well-established country, which also seeks an appropriate and effective legislature. This in turn involves fair and rational voting policy and distribution of seats. During periods it had different systems of election and the current one is First-Past-The-Post (FPTP here and after). However, recently British government started to investigate its drawbacks and benefits, rationality and fairness of elections and now they are considering replacing it by Proportional Representation (PR here and after). PR is the system of election where seats in parliament are almost in same proportion as votes cast, while FPTP is one of plurality/majority systems, where parties with most votes take all and represent the whole Parliament. (accessed on http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/) The following essay is going to analyze the benefits and drawbacks of PR and as a conclusion it will argue that this system can successfully replace FPTP in electing British Government. To begin with advantages, PR would result in better representation of the racial and ethnic minorities (Amy 1997). These parties are awarded a constituent power at a public and regional degree in the countries exploiting this system. Western Europe and Latin America are the demonstrative examples where PR is dominant according to Andrew Reynolds and Ben Reilly (2002). Besides, imposition of this system would provide the voters with a greater amount of viewpoints, so that the candidates of Minor Parties would have more possibility to get a seat at Westminster (Amy 1997). Participation in solving governmental issues would help to develop some new concepts, which don’t a... ...re Proportional Representation can suitably replace First Past The Post in the election of British Government and I believe that imposition of PR will influence the further prosperity of the government and the country as a whole. Works Cited 1. Amy, J. 1997. Full Representation: The Case for a Better Election System. USA: Crescent Street Press. 2. Farrell,M. 2001. Electoral systems: A comparative introduction. Basingstoke: Macmillan. 3. Gallagher, M., and P.Mitchell. ed. 2008. The politics of electoral systems. Oxford: Oxford University Press 4. Hix, S., R.Johnston and I.Mclean 2010. A research report prepared for the British Academy. London. 5. Reynolds, A., B. Reilly and A.Ellis. 2008. Electoral System Design: The New International IDEA Handbook. Sweden: Trydells Tryckeri AB. 6. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/proportional_representation.htm